Songwriting Strategies Read online

  

  FIG. 3.2. Accompaniment Rhythm vs. Vocal Rhythm

  This hocketing technique is an extreme textural option. In real writing, multiple voices will, of course, coincide at various points. The clearer the rhythm patterns in both rhythmic parts, the easier it is for listeners’ ears to track the voices separately.

  3.Add lyrics. To test out how well your vocal rhythmic phrase works, try setting a few different lyric lines against it. Fix any mis-set words, until your line matches the rhythmic phrase in a flowing way. (In figure 3.2, the first line mis-set “com-ING,” and I fixed it with “the answers will come.”)

  These exercises highlight the often subtle interactions of rhythmic phrasing in songwriting, arranging, and performance. These techniques can also be directly useful in writing true “call and response” songs, where lead and background vocals are both integral to the song rather than just arrangement choices. Examples of such songs abound in old-time country or gospel songs, blues and R&B, Latin styles, or contrapuntal duets in musical theater.

  Distinctions between accompaniment or instrumental rhythm and vocal rhythm are particularly fluid in genres such as rap and hip-hop, with lyric rhythm patterns far more intricate than those in genres driven by conventional melody/harmony textures. While some of the rhythmic techniques and rhythm/lyric connections discussed in this and the next chapter might be useful in these genres, the 360° songwriting framework does not encompass all artistic parameters relevant to these styles. For example, there’s a strong melodic and pitch component, even in spoken rather than “sung” rap or hip-hop lyrics. This is speech-tone melody, however, not limited to diatonic or even chromatic scales.

  The Temporal Framework

  In the following sections, we’ll discuss several different attributes or parameters of the temporal framework. These include the relative strict or loose feel of the rhythm, the basic pulse, time signature, groove, and tempo.

  The Flow of Musical Time

  When we write a melody or chord progression, or even set a lyric rhythmically, we cross over into a musical perception of time: a temporal framework shared by the elements in each facet. This sense of an ongoing, flowing stream of musical time is the background structure or canvas against which all musical elements—melodic phrases, lyric lines, and harmonic movement—are heard and interpreted. Qualitative attributes of this flow of time vary from song to song, across genres, and for particular musicians.

  Strict vs. Loose Time

  The temporal foundation is broken into a stream of repeating units of musical time. As a backdrop to specific rhythmic events that may hit at irregular intervals, we experience this stream itself as a rolling, metronomic metrical beat that continues evenly and inexorably. This global attribute affects every facet of the song.

  We can experience this flow of musical time as strict, measured, “metronomic” time, or as a more breathing, rubato, loose kind of time. Some classical music performance practice relies heavily on a “plasticity” in the flow of time. We judge performers and ensembles by their ability to stay synchro-nized amidst these breathing variations.

  As songwriters, the relative strictness or looseness of the temporal feel of a song, determined largely by genre and style, influences what we write. A looser rhythmic feel might inspire more conversational lyrics; a stricter temporal sense more of a dance music feel. Composers and songwriters can cultivate the full range of this strict/loose continuum. Strict time keeps us “honest” and precise, for example, in committing to definite word-setting and phrasing decisions. Looseness in temporal feel gives us the freedom to let the phrasing “breathe,” to try different rhythmic settings, and to experiment more boldly with elements like odd rhythms or extra bars at the ends of phrases. In an extreme form, a loose rhythmic feel can create a “plainchant” kind of compositional space, where rhythmic material is kept in the background and the focus is on elements such as lyric or melody.

  Pulse

  As soon as we start writing a song—whether from lyric, melody, chords, a groove, or track—we settle, consciously or unconsciously, into a particular pulse: a distinctive propulsive quality to the flow of the music. That pulse shapes every aspect of the song and unifies material in every facet. Pulse is intimately linked to the groove, yet embedded in every phrasing decision in the lyric, melody, and even harmonic structure of the song.

  Awareness of pulse is particularly crucial when writing lyrics first. The presence of a consistent pulse differentiates spoken-word poetry, for example, from musical delivery of lyrics. However, when songwriters work lyric-first, they often employ an intermediate form of “spoken lyric” where there’s a felt steady flow of time and pulse, but the specific rhythmic settings are still malleable.

  The Pulse Continuum

  When we write lyrics, the patterns embodied in syllabic stress reflect two main options for the primary pulse of the lyric:

  Duple pulse creates expectation for one unstressed syllable after each stressed syllable: DUM da or / ‿ : “Talking over where we’re going/Never question easy answers…” In this form of pulse, strong- and weak-stressed syllables have approximately equal duration, and so are differentiated by weight or metric emphasis.

  Triple pulse creates an expectation for two unstressed syllables or beats after the stressed beat: DUM da da or / ‿ ‿ : “Wondering whether we’re coming or going/Me never questioning, you never answering…” Beats are still approximately equal duration, with two (or possibly three) distinct levels of stress or weight.

  Most working lyrics will mix these two pulse feels: “Wondering if we’re ever going to answer the questions we’re never asking…” (/ ‿ ‿ / ‿ / ‿ / ‿ ‿ / ‿ ‿ / ‿ ‿ / ‿ / ‿ ). Writing to a pulse will shape the song materials you generate but does not prescribe the rhythm exactly.

  We can see duple and triple pulse as respective end points of a pulse continuum. In conventional musical parlance, this continuum describes the relative degree of swing. As the first beat of duple pulse lengthens relative to the second, we move from two even eighths toward dotted eighth/sixteenth, increasing the degree of swing as we go, eventually shifting from a duple to a triple feel. Alternately, as beats two and three of a triple pulse are shortened relative to the first beat, we move toward a “squarer” duple-pulse feel: eighth/sixteenth/sixteenth.

  The duple/triple continuum notion can provide a unified way of looking at pulse, groove, and even time signature as critical components in the temporal framework of the song. To ensure integrity in your song, especially when working in fragmentary fashion, apply coherent and consistent pulse “pockets” to lyric and musical aspects of the song. Remember also that you can experiment with (and intentionally shift) pulse as an element during the development of the song. Explore revisions for a song whose pulse isn’t quite locking in by shifting gradually from duple to triple pulse or vice versa. See how that changes energy and phrasing.

  Time Signature and Tempo

  Closely related to strict vs. loose time and pulse are factors of time signature and tempo. Time signature is a grouping of beats into larger metrical units, along with a hierarchy of felt stresses associated with each beat or metric position within the measure. Tempo is the speed of these metric beats in the temporal framework. Generally, the first beat of a four-beat structure gets the strongest stress, beat 3 the next strongest, and beats 2 and 4 weaker stress. Different genres and different songs may vary this “weight signature” in both subtle and dramatic ways. These weightings may be determined in part by the groove, a distinctive accompaniment texture incorporating pulse, time signature, and a range of tempos.

  All these attributes have a degree of independence, yet influence each other in subtle ways. For example, as tempo accelerates, a loose, swinging triple-pulse feel, at a certain point, straightens out into duple pulse. This is a phenomenon well-known to jazz drummers, where the “ride cymbal” pattern at a slower swung groove shifts into a straighter 4/4 time as tempo increases. Many dis
tinct rhythmic grooves can be laid down for a given pulse and tempo, while pulse and/or tempo could also be shifted for a given groove, changing its quality and effect—possibly in a dramatic way.

  Working with the Temporal Framework

  Aspects of the temporal framework can be manipulated independently of specific rhythmic material in various facets. However, there’s a bit of a challenge here. Unless you’re listening to a beat or track in a sequencer, the trace of changes to tempo, groove, time signature, etc. are expressed in audible changes to accompaniment rhythms or rhythmic phrases. From a songwriter’s point of view, these changes are the important thing. If tempo didn’t affect our writing, we could simply leave the ultimate choice of tempo to the arranger, producer, and performers. But the tempo at which we set a song will shape the song itself. It’s useful to be aware of those effects, and to be able to change those parameters during writing when necessary. To experience these links and bring them to greater awareness and strategic control, practice intentionally shifting various parameters of the temporal framework as you write, noticing effects of these shifts on your creative results.

  Exercise 3.3. Songwrite-Irama: Transform a rhythmic idea by altering tempo

  This is a songwriter’s version of a technique used in Indonesian gamelan music, where different rhythmic/textural levels are known as iramas. Periodically, the entire ensemble slows down; various instrumental parts double the notes they’re playing. Conversely, as the piece accelerates, faster-moving voices begin to drop out strategic notes. Several tempo levels can be played at each irama before the texture changes. While Western popular music doesn’t employ this orchestral concept directly, songwriters can adapt it as a rhythmic exploration and revision technique. 5

  Write a two-bar rhythmic phrase, noting the original time signature and tempo at which you heard or composed the phrase.

  Gradually accelerate the tempo. Note the tempo at which you begin to want to drop out beats. Transcribe the new, rhythmically “thinned” pattern and note the tempo.

  Return to the original tempo and repeat the phrase to reestablish the initial feel.

  Gradually decelerate the tempo. At certain points in deceleration, you’ll begin to hear “ghost beats” or counter-beats emerge, where the slower tempo pulls new rhythmic impulses into the pattern. Add these beats explicitly into the pattern.

  Figure 3.3. shows an example of the exercise:

  FIG. 3.2.Accompaniment Rhythm vs. Vocal Rhythm

  The original idea’s eight rhythmic hits are thinned at the faster tempo: e.g., the initial eighth and quarter notes “coalesce” into the dotted quarter, while the two eighth notes in the second bar simplify to the quarter note (as shown with the dotted brackets). The accelerated tempo makes us “skim” over the rhythmic pattern, losing some hits in the process. The converse takes place with the decelerated version. Extra hits are added to propel the slower rhythm at key spots.

  In general, faster tempos make us want to drop beats out and to deemphasize contrasts in duration; slower tempos make us want to add beats and to exaggerate contrasts in duration. (Note: That’s not always the case. In bar 2 of the decelerated version, where the anticipation of the original is “softened,” a literal transformation would have dotted half/quarter, in accord with the slower pace.) With each change of tempo, the rhythmic figure takes on a different associative value, potentially matching to different kinds of lyrics. At certain thresholds, these qualitative and associative changes may prompt further compositional changes.

  You can apply this exercise to each aspect of the temporal framework for any given rhythmic figure: time signature, pulse (duple to triple), loose vs. strict-time feel, etc. In each case, incrementally transform the figure. Then reflect on the varied affective and emotional qualities of the results. Notice where transformations suggest changes specific to the rhythmic figure itself.

  Accompaniment Rhythm

  When writers say they write “from rhythm first,” they usually mean starting from an accompaniment rhythm in the sense described earlier. Whether starting from a hand slapping a knee or a fully produced hip-hop track, working “from rhythm” in this sense means composing things other than the rhythm: setting to melodies, lyrics, and/or chords (often in an improvisatory way) over the rhythmic accompaniment. The beat, groove, or produced track is used as a starting point to spark creativity. Working this way is a prominent strategy for writers in many genres, not only genres where rhythm is in the foreground in final production.

  Writers who work from rhythmic ideas first often have preferred pathways for generating material from the rhythmic base. But accompaniment rhythm as source material can inspire matching rhythmic material in any facet. You can expand your writing in response to accompaniment rhythm by setting directly to material in any facet: lyric, melody, chords—even to a purely rhythmic phrase (as distinct from accompaniment). Listening to the beat or track, your next step might be to vocalize a wordless melody, chant lyric ideas rhythmically against the beat, or play chords in a specific harmonic rhythm.

  As you generate this other material (in any facet), you create distinct

  rhythmic phrases against the rhythmic accompaniment. In casual improvisation, a first instinct is to mirror or imitate the accompaniment rhythm in the rhythmic phrase. The following exercises will help you explore richer, more independent relationships between accompaniment and rhythmic phrase, ideally achieving a contrapuntal freedom between these elements.

  EXERCISE 3.4. Cast from a Groove to a Lyric, Melody, Chords

  Start from a rhythmic accompaniment. It can be a simple loop or drumbeat, or a fully realized and produced track. The more fully produced the track, the more timbre and other sonic aspects will play a role in your response, beyond the rhythmic patterns alone.

  Rhythmically speak a lyric inspired by the beat or groove. You may want to think of imagery or scenes inspired by the groove, and use these as a basis for the lyric, or let the groove suggest lyric sounds. Notice where your rhythmic lyric coincides with rhythmic beats of the groove, where beats of the groove play without the lyric, where the lyric moves on rhythmic beats not articulated in the groove. You should be able to hear the instrumental track as a rhythmic part or “voice” distinct from the lyric syllables in their rhythmic setting.

  Putting aside your lyric, try the same exercise, this time working from the groove or track to wordless vocal melody. For the most intensive version of this challenge, sing melodic contours only (oohs and aahs, with no articulated syllables or consonant sounds), so that pitch shifts are your primary rhythmic expression. (See the section on Melody/Lyric Connections, page 108, in the “Melody” chapter.)

  Once again, putting aside your lyric and melodic experiments, at your instrument lay down chord progressions against the beat or track. (Note: Many produced tracks will have embedded harmonic progressions, if only simple cyclic progressions. It will obviously be harder to try this aspect of the exercise in these cases.) Once again, for the purest experience of this challenge, think about the rhythm of your chords as being the rhythm of chord changes rather than rhythmic patterns with which you perform them.

  Lastly, try working from the accompaniment pattern or groove directly to a rhythmic phrase that you express in isolation from specific lyric, melodic, or chordal material. You can vocalize the rhythm, using nonsense syllables, play a single repeating melodic tone on an instrument, or tap the rhythm out. The key is maintaining awareness that you’re generating a rhythmic phrase in counterpoint to the accompaniment.

  Accompaniment rhythmic material used in earlier writing stages serves primarily as a creative stimulus for generating material in other facets. This material might or might not wind up as part of the final song, either in direct or re-orchestrated form. Even for rhythmically driven songs, rhythms you work with at first can be treated as scaffolding or filler, to be later swapped out during revision.

  The Rhythmic Phrase

  The rhythmic phrase is created by metrically pla
ced lyric syllables vocalized with melody. Vocal melody is a union of rhythmic patterns expressed in lyrics and melody, with an additional layer of harmonic rhythm also playing a role. Rhythmic aspects of phrasing can be subject to interpretation and modifica-tion by individual performers. But to work with the greatest rhythmic freedom and assurance in our songwriting, we want to compose in terms of distinct

  rhythmic phrases, even before determining precisely how to map those phrases into lyric syllables and melodic contours.

  Attributes of Lyric Rhythm

  There’s a vast universe of rhythmic patterns and beats, not all suited to lyrical settings. Some rhythms sound like a “lyric in waiting,” others like an accompaniment pattern. There’s no bright-line distinction between rhythmic patterns that lend themselves to instrumental vs. vocal roles. Vocal rhythms draw on speech cadences; they regularize and accentuate speech rhythms while generally exaggerating and intensifying rhythms of casual conversation. Merely setting spoken syllables to metrically regular beats (think of a rhythmic version of “Auto-Tune the News”) would differentiate vocal or lyric rhythm from rhythms of casual speech. The more heightened the emotion to be conveyed, the less conversational and more dramatic and contrastive the rhythmic effects used. At a certain point, rhythmic effects cease to imitate or exaggerate speech rhythms and impose more instrumentally driven rhythms. We can speculate about a continuum ranging from conversational speech rhythms, to lyric rhythms conveying heightened emotion, to more instrumental or percussively oriented rhythmic patterns:

  FIG. 3.4. The Speech/Instrumental Rhythm Continuum

  Let’s consider some qualities of the lyric rhythms that occupy the middle ground of this continuum.